Company Overview Wal Mart - 2216 Words

The need for transformation in any given organization arises when discontent is felt at the current procedures and strategies of the organization (Oden, 1999, p.20). The results gained from the procedures perfected over time by the organization, may become unprogressive and may actually make the owners of these companies question their own values before any outsider does. With so much competition in the ever-changing market, change and good change at that, becomes a necessity. This change should come following a strategy lest it be lost to the whims of employees. Company Overview The first Wal-Mart opened its gate to the public in 1962 in Rogers, Arkansas (Minter Reid, 2007). The philosophy behind opening this store was providing the general populace with great products at a reduced price and good customer service. The stores hit it off due to the great associations made with local suppliers by Wal-Mart to reduce the price. The control of the organization is currently 50% under the Walton family and the other half is shared by the public. Wal-Mart’s organizational system is a compact hierarchy. At present, about 11,500 retail centers present worldwide with about 2.1 million employees and about 3000 suppliers of a wide variety. Wal-Mart serves 250 million customers every year and right now has a net worth of about 230 billion dollars. Wal-Mart is opening up to possibilities of e-commerce at present, to further its reach into the population by providing more ease to theShow MoreRelatedWal Mart Company Overview Essay1757 Words   |  8 PagesBasic History Overview Wal-Marts history is one of innovation, leadership and success. It started with a single store in Rogers, Arkansas in 1962 and has grown to what is now the worlds largest - and arguably, the most emulated - retailer. Some researchers refer to Wal-Mart as the industry trendsetter. Today, this retailing pioneer has annual revenues of over $100 billion, 3,000 stores and more than 750,000 employees worldwide. Wal-Mart operates each store, from the products it stocks, toRead MoreEssay on Wal Mart Company Overview1644 Words   |  7 Pages â€Å"Basic History Overview† Wal-Marts history is one of innovation, leadership and success. It started with a single store in Rogers, Arkansas in 1962 and has grown to what is now the worlds largest - and arguably, the most emulated - retailer. Some researchers refer to Wal-Mart as the industry trendsetter. Today, this retailing pioneer has annual revenues of over $100 billion, 3,000 stores and more than 750,000 employees worldwide. Wal-Mart operates each store, from the products it stocks, to theRead MoreWal Mart s Company Overview And History4402 Words   |  18 PagesCompany Overview and History Wal-Mart is the world’s largest retailer operating over 11,000 retail units under 71 banners in 27 countries and e-commerce websites in 11 countries (Wal-Mart, 2014). It employs 2.2 million associates around the world — 1.3 million in the U.S. alone. Since the first Wal-Mart store opened in 1962 in Rogers, Arkansas, Sam Walton expanded nationally to 51 stores with recorded annual sales of $78 million by 1972 when Wal-Mart was listed on the New York Stock Exchange (WMT)Read MoreWal-Mart Store Company Overview Term Paper1294 Words   |  6 PagesWal-Mart Stores, Inc. Executive Summary Wal-Mart has grown to be the world’s largest retail and grocery store with sales soaring to $419 billion in fiscal year 2011. Wal-Mart employs over 2 million associates worldwide in 9,600 retail units and operates in 28 countries. Wal-Mart has enjoyed its success since 1962 when the first store opened in 1962 in Rogers, Arkansas. Wal-Mart was founded by Sam Walton who envisioned a retail store that could â€Å"save people money to help them live betterRead MorePhl 323 Week 3 Ethical Issues Walmart Paper1535 Words   |  7 Pagesconducted. How a company conducts itself as a business and a corporate citizen is critical to its success. Wal-Mart is the largest retailer in the world; however they are not exempt to acting ethically. In December 2008, Wal-Mart settled 63 laws suits that spans over several years across 42 states accuses Wal-Mart of cheating workers on pay. The settlement cost Wal-Mart $352 million. Based on comments made by Wal-Mart attorneys and spokespeople, it was clear that the company realized that theyRead MoreTarget Corporation versus Wal-Mart Inc. Essay1619 Words   |  7 PagesTarget Corporation versus Wal-Mart Inc. Overview This paper will give a summary of Target corporation versus Wal-Mart stores, Incorporated. In the following weeks it will compare the financial performances of these two companies, by evaluating circumstances such as the times interest earned, return on equity, return on assets and other factors. This paper will present an overview of the exchanges on which both company’s stock is traded. It will also present characteristics of that particularRead MoreWal Mart And The Largest Retail Company1137 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Wal-Mart started as a small firm, with a single discount store and the simple idea of selling more for less. The company has gone a long way from one store to having more than 11,500 stores in 28 countries. Wal-Mart has been a very successful by becoming the largest retail company in the world employing 2.2 million in the World and 1.4 million in United States. This project is about the problems of Wal-Mart as a company with employees and the community at large. The company is known forRead MoreWal Marts Success Story: Business Model and Organizational Strategy1013 Words   |  4 Pagesthis text, I choose to concern myself with Wal-Mart - a fortune 500 company. In so doing, I will amongst other things discuss the stores business model as well as organizational strategy. Further, I will also highlight not only the products the company offers for sale but also its industry and market position. Wal-Mart: An Overview Wal-Mart according to Yahoo Finance (2012) operates retail stores in various formats worldwide. Currently, the company is not only the worlds largest retailer butRead MoreWal Mart As A Symbol Of The United States1613 Words   |  7 PagesOverview: Sam Walton founded Wal-Mart in 1962 in Roger, Arkansas. In a little less than 10 years, Wal-Mart had 38 locations and was opening two stores per year. In 1970, the company started trading in the New York Stock Exchange. By 1979, the company announced a record $1billion sales and it became the first company to do so. Wal-Mart reached record after record during those years, and by the end of 1989, Wal-Mart reported after tax-profits of $1billlion. Wal-Mart now has become a symbol ofRead MoreWal-Mart Swot Analysis1260 Words   |  6 PagesRunning head: Wal-Mart SWOT Analysis Wal-Mart SWOT Analysis September 10, 2012 | | Wal-Mart SWOT Analysis Wal-Mart’s founder Sam Walton had an idea to save customer’s money by keeping sales prices lower than many of his competitors. Mr. Walton’s goal was accomplished by reducing his profit margin and now, Wal-Mart has become the world’s largest company, in terms of returns. According to Datamonitor (2012) recorded revenues of $421,849 million was Wal-Mart’s income in 2011, an

Teenage Depression Compared to Adult Depression Essay...

Teenage depression is a mood disorder characterized by intense negative feelings and emotions. Depression goes beyond temporary feelings of sadness; it is a mental disorder that affects the way one’s mood is controlled by their brain. It is a serious medical illness that affects one’s thoughts, feelings, behavior, mood and physical health. These feelings can have a negative impact on a teenager’s life, leading to social, educational/vocational, personal and family difficulties. Depression is a real disorder that affects about one percent of adolescents by the age of 18 according to the National Comorbidity Survey-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). (March, J. 2004) Teenagers who experience depression tend to have similar symptoms as adults who†¦show more content†¦Tests such as brain-imaging technologies have shown that the brain of a person, who is depressed, tends to differ to those without depression. Some types of depression tend to run in the families ge netics. However, depression can still occur in someone who does not have a family history of depression. (Tsuang, MT. 1990) According to some scientist, there is a certain gene that may make some people more prone to developing depression. Besides genetic factors, depression can also occur when someone goes through a traumatic situation such as the loss of a loved one, a breakup, or any other stressful situation that may trigger a depressive episode. Most teens will show signs and symptoms of depressive illnesses. Some teens may develop a sense of worthlessness over poor performances in school, social statuses, sexual orientation, and family life. Some teens may even develop environmental stress due to depression. Teens with depression will start to have a noticeable change in their thinking, attitude and behavior. Some teens will show signs such as a loss of interest in activities, changes in eating habits and sleeping habits, difficulty concentrating, fatigue and lack of energy and the lack of enthusiasm and motivation in something they once enjoyed. Many rebellious teenagers, who tend to act out, are actually suffering from depression and are trying to find a way to cope with their emotional pain. Depression can have many effects on aShow MoreRelatedTeenage Depression And Teen Depression792 Words   |  4 Pages Teen depression, which is also known as adolescent depression, is a growing problem in today’s society. Depression among teenagers is overlooked by many and is often mistaken for â€Å"normal† teenage behavior. This mental illness is one of the most common psychiatric disorders. Depression is predominantly seen amongst young women who are transitioning into adulthood. Teenagers are at a point in their lives where they come face to face with the reality of peer pressure and a milestone in becomingRead MoreAnti Depressants in Teens727 Words   |  3 Pagesanti-depressants. The big question is, are they really a cure for depression or just a mental steroid. An anti-depressant is a medication used to treat depression and other anxiety disorders. When proscribed to children and teens there can be severe side effects such as an increased chance to commit suicide or have suicidal thoughts or actions. This risk of suicide is higher for people under the age of 25. (Mayo Cl inic Staff). Teenage usage of anti-depressants has been a controversial issue for manyRead MoreDepression Is The First Leading Cause Of Suicide1496 Words   |  6 PagesToday in America, depression is the first leading cause of suicide. Reported in recent statistics, every year, thousands of people succeed in taking their lives and even more have attempted suicide at some point (Hyde and Held 8). Although it is an afflicting concern today, depression dates back to centuries ago, but wasn t fully recognized as a clinical illness until the 1960 s. At this point, depression treatment was only available to adults because it was so unlikely for adolescents to experienceRead MoreConsidering The Causes Behind Increased Teenage Suicide.1536 Words   |  7 PagesIncreased Teenage Suicide Yesterday, 16-year-old Rachel decided to commit suicide-- an all too common increased trend in America as suicide is the third leading cause of death for 15- to 24-year-olds (â€Å"Teen Suicide Is Preventable†). Rachel felt like she could not handle her life anymore. Her parents were in the process of getting a divorce, she was being bullied at school, was having trouble succeeding in academics and co-curricular activities, and was recently been diagnosed with depression. So, inRead MoreEffects Of Teen Pregnancy On Teenage Pregnancy1620 Words   |  7 Pagesparents, their children, and society,† (The Office of Adolescent Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Teenage females associated with childbearing expose themselves to many risks and negative effects that can affect their future. Females result with many consequences due to teenage pregnancy. This paper will strictly focus on the effects females experience through teenage pregnancy. The reader will be able to develop an overall understanding of the causes of teen pregnancy. Also, theRead MoreSimilar to quantitative research, the concern of money is also mentioned as a stress factor,1500 Words   |  6 PagesSimilar to quantitative research, the concern of money is also mentioned as a stress factor, however, majority of teenage parents designate stigma as the most influential contributor. The media plays a huge role in linking and presenting stigmatization of teenage parenthood as a social issue. According to Scherer (2009), stigma creates experiences and feelings of despair, guilt, and disgrace due to what is falsified in the media hence, the unwillingness of seeking or accepting help needed. For thisRead MoreTeen Pregnancy And Its Effect On Children855 Words   |  4 Pagesstill the highest among industrialized nations. The US ranks at one and a half times higher than Great Britain, three times higher than Canada, seven times higher than Denmark and Sweden, and eight times higher than Japan (Azar 1). Society considers teenage pregnancies a problem because they believe teenagers are not emotionally and financially ready to raise their children even though they are physiologically capable of producing offspring. Bearing a child at a young age has a negative effect on bothRead More The Impacts of Poor Health Choices on the Health1302 Words   |  5 Pagescocaine abusers, females had nearly twice the rate of consumption compared with males.’ It means there are a lot of differences between the numbers of drugs abuser on the basis of gender. Furthermore, substance abuse in early life leads to many side effects on the health and well being of both the sexes. But the impacts are also different for and men and women. Female substance abusers are more likely to meet criteria for depression, anxiety disorders and medium individuality disorder .Male substanceRead MoreAn Effective Treatment For Teenage Depression1705 Words   |  7 Pagesof energy, and su icidal thoughts or actions. Of these 2.8 million American adolescents suffering from depression less than 33% actually receive treatment (Teen Help 2015). Depression is a highly treatable disease with treatments ranging from therapy to the use of prescribed medication. Recent studies have shown that healthy lifestyle changes can also be an effective treatment for teenage depression and is a much cheaper alternative to more expensive treatment options. A healthy lifestyle can alterRead MoreTeen Pregnancy Essay1121 Words   |  5 Pagesparents who have teenagers is pregnancy. Nowadays, teen pregnancy is a serious problem. Teenage have a lack of skills to handle a pregnancy. So that impact strongly on the future of a young woman. Teen pregnancy is associated with negative consequences for adolescents for three reasons: lack of education, medical complication, uncertainty about the future, and financial difficulties. First, the main causes of teenage pregnancy are the lack of education on safe sex, whether it is from parents, schools

Problem of Historical Distortion †Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab Free Essays

THE PROBLEM OF HISTORICAL DISTORTION: A Survey of Literature on Imam Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab as viewed through the Western slant of history By Kazi Zulkader Siddiqui The Problem of Historical Distortion Of the past fourteen centuries of the Islamic civilization, its thought, its institutions and the personalities who have contributed to its development and glory, stagnation and disintegration, the historical perspective painted by the Judaeo-Christian West has been markedly distinctive from the picture presented by the Muslim scholars, varying from outright hostile and distorted versions to the recent sympathetic (and sometimes empathetic) accounts. History is one of those branches of knowledge that can be used most effectively for the glorification and upliftment of one’s own people at the expense of the traditions of others, leading eventually to a subversive imposition of one’s own norms, values and way of life as the standard for others. Most, if not all of the people emanating from the Judaeo-Christian tradition who have penned their understanding of the Islamic civilization, have been prey to such underlying motives. We will write a custom essay sample on Problem of Historical Distortion – Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab or any similar topic only for you Order Now This is not unique though since the subjective bias and assumptions of the historian in question are an integral part of the writing of history. What becomes remarkable in this case is the effective use of the historical perspective of other people for the exploitation of the same. This becomes manifest then, for example, in the notorious ‘Divide and Rule’ policy of the post-renaissance British Empire. The Old Testament Hebraic heritage has a lot to offer in comprehending this attitude and mentality of the Western writer. The Old Testament (in the Bible) was written primarily to identify the ancestry and heritage of the Jews and thereby declare their superiority over all other nations. The other nations mentioned in the Old Testament are merely for the sake of justification of the crimes of the Children of Israel. Likewise, the modern Western writer is not concerned about the absolute and relative truths. He is more concerned about justifying or explaining away the phenomena of other civilizations. Through this he either hopes to dominate over the other civilizations, or to convert them to his own ways. We are well aware that our foregoing remarks are heavily loaded with our own assumptions; but there are certain assumptions, which are derived through the cognitive and perceptive processes using the facts of history as the starting point. Thus, in this case, the assumptions are elevated to the level of derived facts and axioms. To prove our point, we have chosen for this paper a survey of the literature in English produced by the West during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries on the famous and controversial imam Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1789). As a prominent figure in Islamic history, loved by many and hated by many others of the Muslims, he has managed to attract the attention of the Western colonialists, missionaries, and historians who were neither, right from his own lifetime to the present. Far greater than the Imam himself is the impact of his followers – the Muwa idun or the so-called Wahhabis – on the Western literature about Islam. The schismatic element in the nature of the controversy between the followers of the Imam and other Muslims has held great interest for the very reasons we have outlined above. The analysis will become far more categorical as we proceed with the survey itself. Besides, this analysis can be made much more precise, accurate and to the point if one were to attempt a similar exercise on the survey of the Western literature about the followers of the Imam. In this paper we shall limit ourselves to the Imam only. To begin with, it would be appropriate to narrate the salient features of the Imam’s life briefly. Page 2 The Problem of Historical Distortion Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab: A Brief Biography: Coming from a learned family, 1 Mu? mmad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab was born in 1115/1703 at `Uyaynah, a small town roughly 30 Km northwest of Riyadh in Saudi Arabia. His ancestors had been steeped in the ? anbali tradition, and so was young Mu? ammad’s education. As a young man, he left `Uyaynah for further studies. His search for learning took him to Makkah, Madinah and Damascus. He acquired great admiration for Ibn Taymiyah (d. 728/1328) through the shaykh `Abd Allah ibn Ibrahim al-Najdi at Madinah. Madinah also offered him a chance to teach for quite some time. Subsequently, he continued this occupation at the Umayyad mosque of Damascus. His journeys took him east to Basrah as well, where, besides acquiring further knowledge of the traditional sciences, he got the chance of getting acquainted with Shi`i and Sufi circles, their ways and ideas. This period ascertained for him the formulation of a mission in his mind. According to the Lam` al-Shihab, 2 he stayed in Basrah for four years and then moved to Baghdad. There he married a wealthy lady and remained for five years. He next went to Hamadan and then to Isfahan in 1148/1736 to study philosophy and Sufism. His quest for knowledge led him to Cairo and Damascus as well. Upon the settlement of his father in Huraymilah near Riyadh in Saudi Arabia, Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab joined him, and it was here that the Imam composed his first work on taw? id, and also gathered disciples. After the death of his father in 1153/1740, he left Huraymilah for `Uyaynah where he spent four years. During his stay there, the governor `Uthman ibn Bishr of the Banu Mu`ammar became his follower. This became a cause for consternation among the powerful Banu Khalid. His preaching against shirk (associating partners with Allah) that was practiced by the masses, and against their moral laxity shook the roots of the society. As a result, the Imam was forced to leave `Uyaynah and seek refuge in Dir`iyah (which is around 10-15 Km from `Uyaynah in the direction of Riyadh), where he found followers among the amir Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud’s brothers and son. Eventually the Amir also supported him. The Amir and the Imam took a bay`ah (an oath of mutual loyalty), â€Å"to strive, by force if necessary, to make the kingdom of God’s word prevail†. 3 This was the beginning of the religio-political reality that was to engulf the whole of Najd and its neighbouring territories during the decades to come, first under the amir Mu? mmad ibn Sa`ud (d. 1178/1765), then under his son `Abd al-`Aziz (d. 1218/1803) and his grandson Sa`ud (d. 1229/1814). We leave the story of the Al Sa`ud for other historians to narrate, and return to the man who called for the return to taw? id (God’s unity) and a true practice of Islam. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab continued his role as teacher in the mosque of Dir`iya h, as political counselor of the Amir, and as a preacher writing theological works and extending his da`wah to the neighbouring areas until his death in 1204/1789. 4 Bearing this brief picture of the Imam in mind, we ow turn to his Western biographers and their accounts. â€Å"His grandfather Sulayman b. Mu? ammad had been mufti of the Nadjd. His father `Abd al-Wahhab was kadi at `Uyayna during the emirate of `Abd Allah b. Mu? ammad b. Mu`ammar; he taught ? adith and fikh in the mosques of the town and left several works of ? anbali inspiration, which in part survive†. Laoust, EI2, III:677, col. 2. 2 Abu Hakima, Ahmad A. , ed. , Lam` al-Shihab fi ta’rikh Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab, Beirut, 1967 3 Laoust, EI2, III:678, col. 2. Most of the facts have been taken from this same source. Most historians give the year of death as 1206/1792. See Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, â€Å"A Diplomat’s Report on Wahhabism of Arabia†, Islamic Studies 7 (1968), p. 38, for the a rgument in favour of 1204/1789 as the correct date. Page 3 1 The Problem of Historical Distortion WESTERN ACCOUNTS ABOUT THE IM M: M. Carsten Niebuhr (1733-1815): The first European to mention the Imam in his writings was M. Carsten Niebuhr who visited the peninsula in 1761-1764, that is within four years of the bay`ah taken between the Imam and ibn Sa`ud. He published his reports in German in 1772 and 1778. An abridged English version of his writings appeared first in 1792 entitled Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East. 5 Niebuhr and his companions had embarked upon an ecclesiastical mission to gather some information about this ancient land of Arabia, which had been the cradle of Christianity just as it had been for Judaism and Islam. Many people have noted the false and misleading remarks of Niebuhr with regards to the Imam. In the drama depicted by Niebuhr, there are two important characters in the founding of â€Å"the New Religion of a Part of Nedsjed†, 6 namely one â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb† and his son â€Å"Mahomet†. His description of ibn `Abd al-Wahhab’s youth seems to tally with the facts of the Imam’s life. Now this â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb†, having founded his religion, converts several Schiechs (i. e. shaykhs) to his faith, and virtually becomes their ruler. He reduces a great part of â€Å"El Ared†, thus seemingly als o performing the role of ibn Sa`ud. After the father’s death, the son â€Å"Mahomet† takes over the small empire built by his father, sustaining â€Å"the supreme ecclesiastical character in El Ared†. Among his beliefs cited are that â€Å"he considered Mahomet, Jesus Christ, Moses, and many others, respected by the Sunnites in the character of prophets, as merely great men, whose history might be read with improvement; denying that any book had ever been written by divine inspiration, or brought down from the heaven by the angel Gabriel. † 9 Against the beliefs of â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb†, he contrasts the Sunnites as a â€Å"superstitious sect† whose opinions are false, depending on â€Å"their own whimsies† to explain the â€Å"Alcoran†, acknowledging saints â€Å"to whom many absurd miracles are ascribed†, etc. 0 Finally, he concludes that ‘The new religion of Abd ul Wahheb deserves therefore to be regarded as a re formation of Mahometism, reducing it back to its original simplicity†. 11 The inaccuracies of Niebuhr’s reporting continued in the Western understanding for many decades as we shall see. Sir Harford Jones Brydges: Far more accurate in his reporting was the civil servant of the colonialist British, Sir Harford Jones Brydges, who sent his first report on the Wahhabis from Baghdad to the British Foreign Office in C. M. Niebuhr, Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, trans. nto English by Robert Heron, vol. 2, Edinburgh, R. Morrison Son, 1792. Cf. also Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , p. 33 and a review of Niebuhr’s life in Islamic Culture 7 (1933), pp. 502-505 by V. B. Mehta. 6 Niebuhr, II:130. Note that Nedsjed is Najd. 7 Ibid. , II:131-3. 8 Ibid. , II:133. 9 Ibid. , II:134. 10 Ibid. , II:135. 11 Ibid. , II:135. Page 4 5 The Problem of Historical Distortion 1799, that is within a decade of the death of the Imam. 12 The weakest part of his report is the following anecdote: â€Å"Shaik Ibn Mahamer 13 proud of possessing this new Sectuary gave Moolah Mohammed 14 his own Sister in Marriage and Moolah Mohammed sometime after, under pretense, that his Brother in Law Mahamer perverted Justice and oppressed the Tribe, murdered him with his own hands in the Mosque as he was at prayers meaning thereby, as he declared, to give to the People of Ayenah 15 a proof that his love for Justice was so great, that neither the obligations which he had to, nor alliance he had with Shaik Mahamer could withhold him from punishing even in him that he conceived to be a deviation from it. The People of Ayenah however appear to have had too much good Sense, to esteem as meritorious, so horrible a Transaction, and they obliged Moolah Mohammed, to abandon Ayenah, and he fled to Dereah 16 where he found an Asylum and Protector in Shaik Ibn Soud, the Governor of that place, who also embraced his Doctrines†. 17 Historically we know that `Uthman ibn Mu`ammar died a natural death after the Imam had left for Dir`iyah, and that his expulsion from `Uyaynah was due to the pressures from v arious parts of that area against his teachings. Other than this error, Brydges’ report to his masters in London faithfully depicted the doctrines taught by the Imam. He says, â€Å"The Religion they possess is Mohammedan according to the literal meaning of the Koran, following the Interpretations of Hambelly†. 18 Thirty-five years later, in 1834, Sir Harford Jones Brydges produced a far greater authoritative account of the Muwa idun in his A Brief History of the Wahauby. 19 We shall return to this document after looking at other developments during these thirty-five years. e Sacy: In 1805, we find the Frenchman de Sacy writing in his paper Observations sur les Wahhabites that the Muwa idun are â€Å"enemies of Islam†. He considered them to be an offshoot of the Qarmatians. 20 Rousseau: Four years later in 1809, another Frenchman by the name of Rousseau produced two short treatises 21 in which â€Å"it was positively asserted, that the Wahabys have a new religion, and that Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , pp . 33-46. i. e. `Uthman ibn Mu`ammar, the governor of `Uyaynah. 14 i. e. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab 15 i. e. `Uyaynah. 16 i. e. Dir`iyah, the first Saudi capital in the eighteenth century. It is now a ruin, lying on the outskirts of present day Riyadh 17 Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , p. 41. 18 Ibid. , p. 42. By â€Å"Hambelly† he means the ? anbali School of Fiqh. 19 Harford Jones Brydges, An Account of the Transactions of His Majesty’s Mission to the Court of Persia in the years 1807-11, to which is appended A Brief History of the Wahauby: London, James Bohn, 1834. 20 M. A. Bari, â€Å"The early Wahhabis, some contemporary assessments†. Proceedings of the 27th International Congress of Orientalists: Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1967. It may be recalled here that the Qarmatians were a 9th – 12th century Isma`ili sect that sprang up in southern `Iraq and al-Hasa’. 21 J. B. L. J. Rousseau, Descriptions du pashalic de Baghdad suivie d’une notice historique sur les Wahabis, et de quelques autres pieces relatives l’histoire et la litterature de l’Orient, Paris, Trouttel et Wurtz, 1809, pp. 125-182. Idem. , â€Å"Notice sur la secte des Wahabis†, Fundgruben des Orients, Vol. I, Wien, 1809, pp. 191-198. 13 12 Page 5 The Problem of Historical Distortion although they acknowledge the Koran, yet they have entirely abolished the pilgrimage to Mekka†. 2 He claimed to derive part of his information from â€Å"le Chapelain de Saoud†. 23 Burckhardt, Brydges, 24 and other later Western writers reprimanded Rousseau for his obvious misinformation, the indignation arising over his claim to an authentic source of information. Corancez: The following year, i. e. in 1810, Corancez published his work in French. 25 Nashshabah says that after Burckhardt, â€Å"the next best Western account of the early history of the Wahhabis is Corancez’s Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu’a la fin de 1809. Corancez, who was the French consul in Aleppo from 1800 to 1808, carefully checked the information he had been able to gather, and his informants were often first-hand observers; but his account of the life of the founder of the Wahhabi movement is inadequate. He ascribes Wahhabi expansion solely to the weakness and misrule of the Ottomans (whose authority in most of Arabia was at times merely nominal) and ignores the fervour stirred up by (ibn) `Abd al-Wahhab which, combined with the leadership of Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud, must surely have been the main reason for their astonishing victories†. 6 Vincenzo Maurizi: During the following years, we find the writings of another Niebuhrian, 27 an Italian by the name of Vincenzo Maurizi alias Shaik Mansur. He amused his European audience with his History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat in 1819, which also devoted a considerable section to the Muwa idun. Maurizi, in his zeal to discredit the movement, overstepped even the limits of Niebuhr a nd painted a completely erroneous picture. To give a full flavour of his deliberate misreporting, we quote part of his narrative below. â€Å"About the middle of the last century (i. e. ighteenth century), a man named Abdulwahab, or Abdulvaab, a native of Hellah, or Ellaa, 28 on the banks of the Euphrates, pretended to have a vision, in which a flame appeared to issue from his body and burn to ashes all the neighbouring country; he confided the extraordinary circumstances which had befallen him to a Mullah, or Mulla, and the interpreter of the will of heaven declared that this sign portended the birth of a son, who should become the founder of a new religion, and perform extraordinary actions. Soon afterwards the wife of Abdulvaab really became pregnant, and bore him a son, who was named Maam? . 29 [footnote in the text reads: This happened about the year 1757. ]. â€Å"The tribe of Neshdee, or Nescede, 30 to which the family belonged, soon imbibed the doctrines which appeared to be sanctioned by divine authority, and Abdulvaab, as general of J. L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, vol. 2: London, Henry Colburn Richard Bentley, 1831, p. II:103. 23 Ibid. , p. 103. 24 cf. ibid. , and Brydges, The Wahauby, p. 109,112. 25 L. A. O. de Corancez, Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu’ la fin de 1809, Paris, Grapelet, 1810. 26 Hisham A. Nashshabah, Islam and Nationalism in the Arab World: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography: Montreal, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, 1955. Unpublished M. A. thesis. p. 11. 27 About Niebuhr, Maurizi remarks â€Å"where the accurate and indefatigable Niebuhr could afford me any assistance, I have not hesitated to avail myself of it, and on the other hand I have occasionally remarked any alterations which have taken place since his days†. 17th page of his â€Å"Preface† to the History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat, 1819. 28 He probably means al-? illah in `Iraq. 29 i. e. Muhammad 30 i. e. Najdi. Page 6 22 The Problem of Historical Distortion an army and prophet of a rising sect, had an opportunity of spreading his political power, and the opinions of the new faith, which he considered himself commissioned to promulgate; while his son accompanied him, and was shown to all as the precious pledge of Almighty approbation towards the Vaabi religion. After Abdulvaabs death Maam? t succeeded in his command, but being blind, was obliged to employ, as his deputy, in all affairs of state except those relating to religion, a person named Abdullazis, 31 an adopted brother of his father’s. This minister followed up the victories of the deceased prophet with the greatest facility. As the first barriers of opposition had been already overthrown, it would be very difficult, and perhaps useless to name all the Seek 32 who resisted in arms the aggrandisement of the Vaabi, or the particular periods of their several conquests; but at the death of the chief last mentioned, 33 almos t all the interior of the Arabian peninsula acknowledged their political and religious sway. Abdullazis succeeded to the supreme authority, and greatly extended the limits of their power, having sacked Mecca and Medina and destroyed the tomb of Mahomet, whom he declared to be a deceiver, and not a messenger of heaven; he also penetrated to the gates of Aleppo and Baghdad, massacred a caravan of Persian pilgrims on their route to visit the burial place of Alle, or Eli, 34 at Ellaa, 35 and plundered that depository of the accumulated wealth of ages†. 36 The historical errors are far too many to comment on in detail; but we shall make observations on some salient distortions. The dichotomy between `Abd al-Wahhab and Mu? ammad ibn `Abd alWahhab is carried on from Niebuhr, but Maurizi goes a step further in proclaiming `Abd al-Wahhab to be a prophet, and giving Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab almost the position of a demi-god. Besides, he transfers the hometown of the family to al-? illah in `Iraq and moves the year of birth of Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab to 1757, the year when he contracted the bay`ah with ibn Sa`ud. The fallacy of a tribe called Najdi, of the existence of `Ali’s tomb at al-? illah, of `Abd al-`Aziz being the adopted brother of the Imam’s father, etc. eed hardly be commented upon. But the interesting development that must be noted is the so-called declaration by `Abd al-`Aziz of the Prophet Mu? ammad (p) being an impostor. Maurizi elaborates on this and other supposed beliefs of the â€Å"Vaabi† by quoting an answer which he claims to have been given to him by an envoy of Sa`ud ibn `Abd al-`Aziz. It reads: â€Å"We do n ot differ from other Musaleems, or Muselims (Musselmen) 37 except in thinking that Mahomet arrogated to himself too much authority; and, that the Koran was sent to the earth by the hands of angels, nd not of that man, who has even dared to falsify many of its doctrines; we also consider that the prophets, and especially Maamet iben Abdulvaab were beings like ourselves; and, therefore, not worthy of being addressed in prayer, although deserving of admiration and imitation for their piety and moral conduct†¦ † 38 Obviously, Maurizi could not have known more than a few words or phrases in Arabic, or else he would have rendered the envoy’s answer truthfully. Instead, he has imposed hearsay and his own 31 32 Presumably `Abd al-`Aziz ibn Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud. . e. shaykhs. 33 i. e. Maamet, the son of Abdulva b. 34 i. e. `Ali ibn Abi Talib. 35 i. e. al-? illah in `Iraq. 36 Maurizi, , op. cit. , pp. 36-38. 37 i. e. Muslims. 38 Maurizi, op. cit. , p. 40. Page 7 The Problem o f Historical Distortion assumptions into the mouth of the envoy. His lack of knowledge of Arabic is reflected also in the fact that he misconstrues `Abd Allah ibn Sa`ud, the Sa`udi amir after Sa`ud ibn `Abd al-`Aziz as â€Å"Abdullahazis† (`Abd al-`Aziz). Similarly, in the last passage cited, the envoy must have said â€Å"the prophets, and especially Mu? mmad ibn `Abd Allah were beings like ourselves †¦ † which Maurizi took to mean Maamet iben Abdulvaab. Maurizi’s account even disgraces fiction. J. L. Burckhardt: John Lewis Burckhardt was the first to bring a balanced view of the movement to the European audience. The epistle of Brydges in 1799 was not a public document. Thus Burckhardt’s Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys published in 1831 was a turning point in the Western understanding of the Imam and his followers. This work goes into fair amount of detail about the movement. Burckhardt dispelled many of the misunderstandings that had been current in the West as a result of the earlier writings. The very first thing he set out to correct was that: â€Å"The doctrines of Abd el Wahab were not those of a new religion; his efforts were directed only to reform abuses in the followers of Islam, and to disseminate the pure faith among Bedouins; who although Muselmans, were equally ignorant of religion, as indifferent about all the duties which it prescribed†. 39 Comparing the Muwa idun to the Ottoman Turks, he says: â€Å"Not a single new precept was to be found in the Wahaby ode. Abd el Wahab took as his sole guide the Koran and the Sunne (or the laws formed upon the traditions of Mohammed); and the only difference between this sect and the orthodox Turks, however improperly so termed, is, that the Wahabys rigidly follow the same laws which the others neglect, or have ceased altogether to observe. To describe, therefore, the Wahaby religion, would be t o recapitulate the Muselman faith; and to show in what points this sect differs from the Turks, would be to give a list of all the abuses of which the latter are guilty†. 0 One can quote Burckhardt at length to show his positive attitude which led him to a fairly objective analysis of the creed and practice of the Muwa idun, and the reasons why Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab â€Å"was misunderstood both by his friends and his enemies†. 41 The former took offense at his seeming attacks on the Prophet (p) and the latter saw a political threat in his preaching; thus leading to an intentional distortion of the facts. Despite this objectivity in Burckhardt, one cannot but comment on the Western slant of his perception. The usage of words often has a psychological effect on the reader. For instance, Burckhardt, writing about the Imam says that â€Å"being convinced by what he observed during his (b. `Abd al-Wahhab’s) travels, that the primitive (emphasis ours) faith of Islam, or Mohammedanism, had become totally corrupted and obscured by abuses,†¦ â€Å". 42 The value judgment involved in his use of the word â€Å"primitive† is apparent. The Western notion that the progression of thought and ideas essentially leads to the advancement of civilization is a result of their philosophical heritage. The Islamic notion, that the absolute is derived solely through the process of divine revelation in history and not through cognitive, intuitive or perceptive processes which are bound by the limitations of the human mind, stands markedly in contradistinction to the Western assumptions. Thus, while the 39 40 Burckhardt, op. cit. , II:99. Ibid. , II:112 41 Ibid. , II:99. 42 Ibid. , II:96. Page 8 The Problem of Historical Distortion Muslim (including Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab) would view the life of the Prophet as a supreme achievement in the history of man, the Western thinker would regard it as a ‘primitive’ stage in the life of man. However, it is remarkable that if one is to compare Burckhardt with the later Orientalists, he was far ahead of his own time in this respect. His value judgements are very limited. Hitti, a century later, echoes the same words that â€Å"he (b. `Abd al-Wahhab) himself determined to purge it (Islam) and restore it to its primitive strictness†. 43 Hitti goes further though in regarding the bay`ah of 1757 as â€Å"another case of marriage between religion and the sword†. 4 The subtle intrusion of value judgements are scattered profusely throughout the writings even of the socalled ‘sympathetic’ Western Orientalists like Nicholson, 45 Wilfrid Cantwell Smith (d. 2000), 46 von Grunebaum (1909-1972), 47 and H. A. R. Gibb (d. 1971) 48 not to speak of the others. Andrew Crichton: The next stage in the history of the West ern biographies of the Imam was set by Andrew Crichton with his publication of History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern in 1833. This is the first time that we see a Western writer composing a secondary work on the Muwa dun based solely on other Western writings. Having noted Burckhardt’s caution against the misconceptions floating around, Crichton relied primarily on Burckhardt, Corancez and Mengin in particular. 49 Since he has nothing original to offer, we turn to his usage of some of the material at hand. For example, after outlining the beliefs and practices of the Muwa idun, he states â€Å"They did not, however, so far outstrip themselves of all superstition as to abolish the ceremonies of ablution and the Meccan pilgrimage, or even those of kissing the black stone and throwing stones at the devil†. 0 To start with, this reveals the author’s ignorance about Islam, it’s beliefs, practices and rituals. Secondly, it is surprising that the author cannot e ven conceive of non-Christian rituals that reflect and lead to cleanliness, unity of man, and submission and commitment to God. By calling these rituals â€Å"superstition†, the author has obviously passed a normative judgment that is reflective of the Judaeo-Christian tradition. Sir Harford Jones Brydges re-visited: Chronologically, this brings us once again to Sir Harford Jones Brydges. This worthy civil servant of the colonialist British Empire had little that was new to add to the known facts of the Imam’s life as described by Burckhardt. He published his Brief History of the Wahauby, in 1834 after perusal of Burckhardt’s work. The only point on which the two disagreed was whether Mu? ammad ibn alWahhab was the father-in-law or the son-in-law of Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud. Regardless of this dispute, what Brydges has to offer as an interpretation of this relationship between the two is as follows: P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs: Edinburgh, 1939, 1972, p. 40. Ibid. 45 R. A. Nicholson, Literary History of the Arabs, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1907, 1969, p. 466. 46 W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History: N. Y. , Mentor, 1957, pp. 48-51. 47 G. von Grunebaum, â€Å"Attempts at Self-Interpretation in Contemporary Islam†, Islam: Essays in the nature and growth of a cultural tradition, London, 1955, pp. 185-236. 48 H. A. R. Gibb, Modern Trends in Is lam, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1947, 1972, pp. 26-32. 49 Andrew Crichton, History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern, vol. 2: Edinburgh, Oliver Boyd, 1833, p. II:190. See footnote. 50 Ibid. , II:290. 44 43 Page 9 The Problem of Historical Distortion â€Å"†¦ and that in consequence of this connexion, though Abdulwahaub remained the book, Mahommed Ibn Saoud became the sword of the sect†. 51 This is the prelude to what we have been hearing from Orientalists like Hitti and others mentioned earlier. The only difference is that while Brydges was a part of the colonialist establishment and had a political axe to grind, the Orientalists are a part of the neo-colonialist imperialism that breeds Orientalist research. In other respects, i. . those that cover other aspects of the history of the Muwa idun, their administration, etc. , Brydges’ book complements the work of Burckhardt. W. G. Palgrave: Moving beyond the middle of the nineteenth century, we come to William Gifford Palgrave, a servant of the British crown in India, steeped in the Christian tradition. By his time, the facts of the movement were well known; it was now the time for the growth of interpretation of these facts. Palgrave published two works, namely Eastern and Central Arabia (1866) and Essays on Eastern Questions (1872). Wahhabism had by this time become a great threat to the British Empire in India and elsewhere, and the crown was out to discredit the movement not only in the British public eye, but also among the Muslims residing in the British colonies. The latter purpose was not difficult to achieve due to the existing propaganda against the Muwa idun by the Ottoman Turks. Thus, in true service of British colonialism and displaying his loyalty to the missionary cause, Palgrave tried to paint the movement as a reaction to the pressure of the Christian West. He says â€Å"The great reactionary movement, the ‘Revival’, originated where scarce a spark of life had been left, by the too-famous ‘Abd-el-Wahhab, in the land of Nejd, has gradually but surely extended itself over the entire surface and through all the length and depth of Islam; while the ever increasing pressures of the Christian, or, at least, non-Mahometan, West, has intensified the ‘fanatical’ tendency, even where it has modified its special direction. For ‘Islam’ is a political not less than a religious whole;†¦ † 52 This was a rejoinder to the alarm sounded by W. W. Hunter (who was in Her Majesty’s Bengal Civil Service) in his book The Indian Musalmans. 53 By this time, the British had already successfully faced Sayyid A? mad Shahid (d. 1831), Titu Mir and the War of 1857. With these major setbacks, a wave of strong ‘Wahhabi’ feelings had swept the Muslims of Bengal and Northern India, hoping to regain their lost position. Therefore, it was essential for the British cause to subvert this obvious threat. Apart from the political motivations for his analysis, his Christian missionary zeal and hatred for Islam drove Palgrave to write as follows: â€Å"The Wahhabee reformer formed the design of putting back the hour-hand of Islam to its starting-point; and so far he did well, for that hand was from the first meant to be fixed. Islam is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain. Sterile like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme Original in all that constitutes true life – for life is love, participation, and progress, and of these the Coranic Deity has none – it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all developement. To borrow the forcible words of Lord Houghton, the 51 52 Brydges, The Wahauby, p. 107. W. G. Palgrave, Essays on Eastern Questions: London, MacMillan Co. , 1872, p. 115. 53 W. W. Hunter, The Indian Musalmans, 1871. Page 10 The Problem of Historical Distortion written book† is there the â€Å"dead man’s hand†, stiff and motionless; whatever savours of vitality is by that alone convicted of heresy and defection. â€Å"But Christianity with its living and loving God, Begetter and Begotten, Spirit and Movement, nay more, a Creator made creature, the Maker and the made existing in One, a Divinity communicating itself by uninterrupted gradation and degree from the most intimate union far off t o the faintest irradiation, though all that It has made for love and governs in love;†¦ † 54 Mu? mmad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab is the example for him par excellence of the true image of Islam, stagnant against a dynamic Christianity, backward looking against the advancing Christianity, lifeless against the living Christianity, and with a Sterile God against a living and loving Christian God who begets his only begotten Son becoming the Creator and creature, the Maker and the made all in One. Palgrave combined the missionary and the colonialist mentality in a perfect blend that was to reflect in the Orientalist attitude during the century to follow. He becomes the precursor to the likes of Samuel Zwemer, 55 E. Calverley, C. M. Doughty (1843-1926), 56 T. E. Lawrence (1888-1935), 57 and others. We end our analysis with Palgrave. Doubtless, the approach of the Orientalist has improved vastly during this century, as we see in the writings of George Rentz, for example. 58 However, the Orientalists of the latter portion of the nineteenth century, and until recently, those of the twentieth century have faithfully followed the tradition of the likes of Palgrave. CONCLUSION: For the sake of betterment and advancement of the civilization of man, we go back to our opening remarks and question the Western Judaeo-Christian approach towards the civilizations of the East. Rejecting the self-centeredness and particularity practiced by the Judaeo-Christian West, and in order to approximate the Islamic universality, we must shed our feathers and appreciate the traditions and civilizations of others within their own framework and assumptions. The plurality of this small world, shrunk by the advance of technology, necessitates a renunciation of selfishness and oppression of the weak, at least in intellectual exercises. In the present context, that is of our approach towards history, we are now bound to accept the facts as such and interpret them for the betterment of mankind. It is obvious that personal biases cannot be eliminated in their totality. The basic assumptions must remain. Regardless, this should not lead us to a distortion of facts. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab served an important purpose to a significant population of mankind, and has also caused grievance to many. In light of this we cannot justify either veneration or denunciation of this man, who devoted his life for a simple cause. W. G. Palgrave, Narrative of a Year’s Journey Through Eastern and Central Arabia (1862-63), 2 Vols. : London, MacMillan Co. , 1866, p. I:372. 5 Samuel M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam and The Mohammedan World of Today: N. Y. , Fleming H. Revell Co. , 1906. 56 Charles Montagu Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta: London, N. Y. , 1906. 57 T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom: London, Jonathan Cape, 1926, 1935, 1940 Idem. , Revolt in the Desert: N. Y. , George H. Doran Co. , 1927 58 George Rentz, Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab and the Unitarian Movemen t in Arabia, Ph. D. Thesis, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Cf. also Idem. , â€Å"Wahhabism and Saudi Arabia† in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics, ed. y Derek Hopwood: London, George Allen Unwin, 1972, pp. 54-66. And Idem. , â€Å"The Wahhabis† in Religion in the Middle East ed. by A. J. Arberry: Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 270- 284. Page 11 54 The Problem of Historical Distortion Instead, his contribution to the development of civilization must be appreciated in its true perspective. The most important conclusion is the recognition of the distortion of facts, deliberate or otherwise, by the Western colonialists, their functionaries, their missionaries, and the Orientalists who were none of these. Their aims were multifarious. While the colonialists and their functionaries strove to maintain their political supremacy and to keep the Muslim population subdued within the colonies, the missionaries tried their utmost to distort Islam to the extent possible hoping to gain converts. It was often that the aims of the colonialists and the missionaries though seemingly different were in fact the same. Hence, they worked hand in glove throughout and distorted the facts of history to make their own ends meet. Page 12 The Problem of Historical Distortion BIBLIOGRAPHY Abu Hakima, Ahmad A. , ed. , Lam` al-Shihab fi ta’rikh Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab, Beirut, 1967 M. A. Bari, Harford Jones Brydges, â€Å"The early Wahhabis, some contemporary assessments†. Proceedings of the 27th International Congress of Orientalists: Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1967. An Account of the Transactions of His Majesty’s Mission to the Court of Persia in the years 1807-11, to which is appended A Brief History of the Wahauby: London, James Bohn, 1834. Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, vol. 2: London, Henry Colburn Richard Bentley, 1831, p. II:103. Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu’a la fin de 1809, Paris, Grapelet, 1810. History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern, vol. 2: Edinburgh, Oliver Boyd, 1833 Travels in Arabia Deserta: London, N. Y. , 1906. An abridged version of this work was also published under the title Wanderings In Arabia, London, Duckworth, 1908, 1926 Modern Trends in Islam, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1947, 1972 â€Å"Attempts at Self-Interpretation in Contemporary Islam†, Islam: Essays in the nature and growth of a cultural tradition, London, 1955, pp. 85-236 History of the Arabs: Edinburgh, 1939, 1972 The Indian Musalmans, 1871 â€Å"A Diplomat’s Report on Wahhabism of Arabia†, Islamic Studies 7 (1968), Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, III:677, col. 2. Seven Pillars of Wisdom: London, Jonathan Cape, 1926, 1935, 1940 Revolt in the Desert: N. Y. , George H. Doran Co. , 1927 History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat, 1819 A review of Niebuhr’s life in Islamic Culture 7 (1933), pp. 502-505 Islam and Nationalism in the Arab World: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography: Montreal, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, 1955. Unpublished M. A. thesis. Literary History of the Arabs, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1907, 1969 Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, trans. into English by Robert Heron, vol. 2, Edinburgh, R. Morrison Son, 1792. Essays on Eastern Questions: London, MacMillan Co. , 1872 Narrative of a Year’s Journey Through Eastern and Central Arabia (1862-63), 2 Vols. : London, MacMillan Co. , 1866 Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab and the Unitarian Movement in Arabia, Ph. D. Thesis, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. â€Å"Wahhabism and Saudi Arabia† in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics, ed. by Derek Hopwood: London, George Allen Unwin, 1972, pp. 54-66 â€Å"The Wahhabis† in Religion in the Middle East ed. by A. J. Arberry: Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 270- 284 Descriptions du pashalic de Baghdad suivie d’une notice historique sur les Wahabis, et de quelques autres pieces relatives a l’histoire et a la litterature de l’Orient, Paris, Trouttel et Wurtz, 1809, pp. 125-182. J. L. Burckhardt, L. A. O. de Corancez, Andrew Crichton, Charles Montagu Doughty, H. A. R. Gibb, G. von Grunebaum, P. K. Hitti, W. W. Hunter, Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, Henri Laoust, T. E. Lawrence, Idem. , Vincenzo Maurizi, V. B. Mehta, Hisham A. Nashshabah, R. A. Nicholson, C. M. Niebuhr, W. G. Palgrave, W. G. Palgrave, George Rentz, Idem. , Idem. , J. B. L. J. Rousseau, Page 13 The Problem of Historical Distortion Idem. , W. C. Smith, Samuel M. Zwemer, â€Å"Notice sur la secte des Wahabis†, Fundgruben des Orients, Vol. I, Wien, 1809, pp. 191198. Islam in Modern History: N. Y. , Mentor, 1957 Arabia the Cradle of Islam and The Mohammedan World of Today: N. Y. , Fleming H. Revell Co. , 1906 Page 14 How to cite Problem of Historical Distortion – Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab, Papers

Discharging Student Loans Into Bankruptcy Essay Example For Students

Discharging Student Loans Into Bankruptcy Essay Over the years, the process of declaring bankruptcy has become incredibly simple. Because of this change, the number of people declaring bankruptcy is at an all time high. Today, bankruptcy is a common thing among companies and individuals alike. The American bankruptcy law allows people to avoid paying their debts by offering the debtors a discharge without a harsh consequence. By not having repercussions for their actions, bankruptcy filers often plan future bankruptcies, allowing them to steal even more money from creditors with no punishment. There are 13 different chapters in the bankruptcy system with the principal chapters being 7,11, and 13. You can only file for bankruptcy under these three chapters, the others are there to explain how the system works. Under Chapter 7, a persons debts are wiped away while under chapters 11 and 13, debts are frozen while the debtor figures out a way to repay them. The people filing Chapter 7 are stealing money from creditors who are trying t o help them. It is ones moral duty to pay back his debts and one should be disgraced and embarrassed if they borrowed money they cannot pay back. Over 1,400,000 people filed for bankruptcy in 1998 under Chapter 7, Chapter 11, and Chapter 13. 75% of them were under Chapter 7, leaving retailers, bankers, and credit-card companies with $40 billion in unpaid debts (Kopecki 5) (Pomykala 16). The use of different reforms could cut down on the number of Chapter 7 filings and put responsibility back on the debtor. Declaring Chapter 7 bankruptcy is ethically and morally wrong and through different reforms this current right would be considered a crime. Bankruptcy was slowly transformed through history from being a crime committed by debtors into a social welfare program. In the past, bankruptcy offenders were severely punished. Before the mid-19th century, bankruptcy was a crime (Pomykala 16). There were many ways to punish those who committed this heinous act. The Pennsylvania Bankruptcy Act of 1785 allowed the flogging of these offenders while their ear was nailed to a post and afterwards the ear was cut off. Similar to Hester Prynnes punishment of wearing a scarlet A on her chest for adultery, people who committed the act of bankruptcy were branded on the thumb with a T for thief (Pomykala 17). Various punishments like these served as a warning to future violators. By punishing those who declared bankruptcy, it gave further incentives to avoid getting lost in debt. The death penalty for many of these offenders was replaced with a maximum of 10 years in prison under the 1800 Bankruptcy Act. Slowly through the years the prison sen tences were shortened and then abolished. It became easier to declare bankruptcy and the stigma behind it is now gone. Currently, there are essentially no punishments for bankruptcy filers. Bankruptcy endows debtors the inalienable legal right to discharge debts without payment (Pomykala). Some claim there are consequences for filing for bankruptcy. The most apparent disadvantage of filing for bankruptcy protection is the serious damage inflicted on the debtors credit rating. A bankruptcy filing can remain on an individuals credit report for 10 years (Jasper 3). There are hundreds of websites that will give people who have declared bankruptcy credit cards and loans. File bankruptcy and keep it out of your credit report! (700Law.com). These websites specialize in getting people who have declared bankruptcy new credit cards and loans. They show one how to wipe ones debts away and how to keep those debts off ones record. If the credit report did stay on ones record for 10 years it woul d not matter because there are so many companies still willing to give them credit. Even if youve had a bankruptcy or foreclosure in the past, well work hard to help you get the cash you need (Ameriquest Mortgage). The only real punishment after filing Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 is that there is a 6 year waiting period before they can file again, but, Once the forbidden fruit is bitten, many bankrupts come back to discharge debts again. (Pomykala 18)Chapter 7 bankruptcy involves liquidation of the debtors assets (Pearce 16). Once one files, one would think that all of their assets would be taken away; this is not the case. There is a long list of items called exempt property, which include such things as motor vehicles, jewelry, and property (Elias 1/2). However, these items are not taken from the filer and sold to pay off their debts, they get to keep these things. There is often no estate to liquidate and if there is a house, it is often considered exempt property. The Bankruptcy Cod es approach to property exemptions is one of the most heavily criticized areas of bankruptcy law. From the debtors prospective, very broad exemptions make Chapter 7 attractive. Even individuals with slight financial problems may find bankruptcy hard to resist if they can keep significant property and still receive full discharge of their debts (Hanson). In 1996 Doctor Hashemi took his family on a six week European vacation costing $60,000. He charged it to his American Express and when he got back from his lovely vacation he declared bankruptcy. He kept his home and all his assets, but the $60,000 was wiped clean. In another case, Mr. Uddin amassed $170,500 in unsecured debt over six months for airline tickets, consumer electronics, perfume, cosmetics, and gambling trips to Atlantic City where he lost $60,000. He got $50,000 in cash advances on his credit card, which he claims he lent to a friend whom defrauded him and disappeared. He asked the bankruptcy court to abolish his debts and they did (Hanson 30). A person who commits such heinous acts should be thrown in jail, not have their debts dissolved. The creditors are the ones paying for all of this deceitful action. Losing more than $40 billion dollars, creditors are footing the bill for irresponsible spending (Warner 13). Their job is to make spending money easy by not having to carry around cash and by loaning consumers a little money when they just need that extra cash to buy a new home or car. Instead of being thanked for their help, creditors are being stolen from and defrauded and they are paying for it, not the consumer. More Americans file for bankruptcy than graduate college each year (Feltman). Ninety seven percent of bankruptcy filings are under Chapter 7 and without reform these numbers are just going to grow. Many people claim it is their right to declare bankruptcy. By the number of people filing one can tell they are exercising that right. There are 1.5 million people in America who claim the y do not have enough money to pay back their debts (Kopecki 5). Is it right to borrow money and not pay it back? Is it right for creditors to pay for the things the consumer buys? If one cannot afford to pay for something, one should not buy it. If a bank lends a man a thousand dollars and he knows he will not get punished if he does not pay back the money, why should he return it? It is his moral duty to pay back the money he has borrowed and if he does not, how would it be any different than if he went into the bank and stole the thousand dollars? The difference is that if he stole the money he would be put in jail, but if he borrows it and declares bankruptcy, there is absolutely no punishment and he does not have to pay back the bank. People should feel disgusted with themselves if they commit such an act. If they do not have the morals to repay the money, they should be put in jail as if they had stolen the money because it really is no different. People claiming bankruptcy is a right use the point that there is more bankruptcy filings because Americans debts have become greater over the years. On the contrary, there has not been much of a change in debt in the past twenty years. So why is there a 300 percent increase in filings since 1980 if the debt is relatively the same? (Irons). Bankruptcy laws give a second chance to people who were simply unlucky and fell on hard times and can no longer repay their loans. The thought is that if they could repay, they would, and declaring bankruptcy is therefore only a last option when everything else fails (Irons). The number of filings alone disproves this theory. Since there is the same amount of debt, there should be the same about of filings, but the number of filings has gone up drastically. It is true that after one files for bankruptcy they get a second chance, but why do they deserve it? Even if a person has fallen on hard times it is their responsibility to pay back their debts, not someone elses. The amou nt of time between declaring bankruptcy and having a clear record should be extended beyond six years. All assets should be taken from the person including their car and home in order to repay their debts. If there were harsher consequences for not paying back ones debts, then the number of filings would undoubtedly reduce. If not thrown in jail, they should have to pay back their debts within a certain amount of years. If they still cannot pay them back, they should be thrown in jail as if they stole the money directly from the place they borrowed from. In the past, bankruptcy was considered a crime and the perpetrators were punished. Their social standing was degraded and their peers looked down upon them. Declaring bankruptcy has currently lost its stigma and has become socially acceptable. It is just another form of stealing except the people who file are not arrested or punished. Creditors lose billions each year because of these people who claim they cannot pay back their debt s. Through reforms, the number of filings would be cut down and punishment for these actions would be greater. Filing Chapter 7 bankruptcy is an easy way out of paying ones debts and until there is a harsher punishment for these actions, the numbers will continue to grow. .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f , .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .postImageUrl , .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f , .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f:hover , .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f:visited , .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f:active { border:0!important; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f:active , .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf38e6f3e22e3228a4e5021a33895007f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The San Francisco 1989 Earthquake EssayWorks Cited700Law.com. Bankruptcy Online 12 Dec 2001. Ameriquest Mortgage. Home Mortgage Loans 12 Dec. 2001. . Elias, Albin Renauer, and Robin Leonard. How to File for CHAPTER 7BANKRUPTCY. Berkeley: Nolo 1999. Feltman, Peter. Bankruptcy Bill Closer to Enactment. Bankruptcy Debate Continues 12Dec. 2001. . Hanson, Randall K., A new chapter in bankruptcy reform. Journal of AccountancyFeb. 1999. Irons, John S., Private Debt: Two Views on Debt. About.com 12 Dec 2001Jasper, Margaret C., Bankruptcy Law for the Individual Debtor. New York: Oceana 1997. Kopecki, Dawn, More American Debtors Turn to Chapters 7 13. (bankruptcy law makes discharging debt easy). Insight on the News 22 Mar. 1999. Pearce, John A. II, Samuel A. DiLullo, When a strategic plan includesbankruptcy. Business Horizons Sept.-Oct. 1998. Pomykala, Joseph S., BANKRUPTCY LAWS: The Need for Reform. USA Today Nov. 1999Pomykala, Joseph. BANKRUPTCY REFORM: Principals and Guidelines (Revised Edition) Regulation Vol. 20, No. 4, 1997. Warner, David, Bills seek to slow bankruptcy filings. (Congress introduceslegislation to make bankruptcy laws more strict). Nations Business Mar. 1999

Slave narratives free essay sample

Slaves comprised one-fifth or 20 percent of the total population of New York City, making it a city with one of the highest concentration of slaves in colonial America. (See the introductory section. ) 2. Which statement describes African American slaves views on the American Revolution? A. They viewed it as an opportunity to gain their own freedom. As the battle for political independence from Great Britain intensified in the late eighteenth century, the rhetoric of the day that freely referenced liberty and freedom of oppression was not lost on the slaves. They fought on both sides of the Revolution because they saw the Revolution as an opportunity to gain their own freedom. (See the introductory section. ) 3. What was the attitude of white New Yorkers regarding the abolition of slavery? c. Their attitude was not much different than their Southern counterparts. Though New Yorkers lived with a constant threat posed by rebellious slaves, they proved no more willing to relinquish their slaves as their Southern counterparts had been in earlier times. We will write a custom essay sample on Slave narratives or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (See section African American Life in Eighteenth-Century North America in your textbook.) 4. What led colonists to embrace slave labor more enthusiastically in the mid-eighteenth century? b. A diminished supply of European-born laborers Although demand for labor in the American colonies remained high, the supply of white labor from Europe diminished due to, among other factors, the Seven Years War of 1756-1763. (See section Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies in your textbook. ) 5. Which statement accurately describes the scope of slavery in mid-eighteenth-century New England? a. The use of slave labor expanded into occupational sectors where it had previously not existed By the mid-eighteenth century, slavery expanded into new occupational sectors and into new geographic areas. In both cases, the shortage of white immigrant labor prompted this changed dynamic. Enslaved Africans were employed as apprentices to skilled artisans and were used as laborers in grain-producing operations in southern New England. (See section Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies in your textbook. ) 6. How did the colony of Georgias relationship to slavery change in the1750s? b. The colonys ban on slave imports was lifted, allowing Georgia to become a slave society. Established as a military buffer between Britains lucrative Carolina colonies and Spanish Florida, Georgia did not permit slavery under the terms of its original charter. Succumbing to immense political pressure, the colonys trustees lifted this ban in 1751 and Georgia quickly transformed into a slave society, witne ssing an explosive increase in the slave population in less than thirty years. (See section Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies in your textbook. ) What sustained the black population in colonial New England? c. The continuous importation of slaves directly from Africa Domestic birth rates among slaves in New England remained extremely low. In response, colonial New Englanders relied on a brisk trade in slaves imported directly from Africa. By the early 1740s, 70 percent of all slaves imported into New England were brought directly from Africa, a reversal of a dynamic that existed earlier in the eighteenth century when 70 percent of all slaves imported into New England originated from Britains West Indian colonies. (See section Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies in your textbook. ) 8. What percentage of the total northern population did free blacks comprise? c. 10 percent In both the North and the South, black freedom contracted as the eighteenth century progressed. Free blacks represented a negligible portion of the total populations of any of the given Southern colonies. Although more common in northern colonies, their numbers never rose above 10 percent of the total population. (See section Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies in your textbook.) 9. How did New England blacks form a distinctive African American culture? b. Establishing their own rituals and celebrations Establishing new rituals and celebrations was one way in which the black population of New England created their own distinct culture that reflected the assimilation of the American-born population alongside the influence of recent African arrivals. Negro Election Day is one example of this phenomenon. This celeb ration was largely confined to New England and was an opportunity for blacks to cross cultural and linguistic divides. It also gave the powerless the opportunity to play the role of the powerful. (See section Shaping an African American Culture in your textbook). 10. What was the eighteenth-century revival movement that swept through colonial America called? d. The Great Awakening The Great Awakening refers to a religious revival movement of the eighteenth century that spread throughout the colonies and fostered a spirit of equality that appealed to both white and black Americans. Chapter 3 provides more in-depth information about its effects on the American slave population and how it influenced the American Revolution. (See section The Slaves Great Awakening in your textbook. ) 11. What was the name of the eighteenth-century intellectual movement that questioned traditional institutions, customs, and morals? a. The age of Enlightenment The age of Enlightenment was a time when thinkers in America and in Europe questioned traditional institutions, morals, customs, and values. American colonial leaders often framed their critique of their relationship with Great Britain through the lens this movement provided. (See section The African American Revolution in your textbook. ) 12. How did African Americans use the climate of the American Revolution in their efforts to bring about an end to slavery? b. They fought for both sides in the conflict. Slaves took advantage of the social disorder in the Revolutionary era to seize their freedom. Once the conflict with Great Britain began, fugitives could often secure freedom through military service. While more than five thousand African Americans fought alongside the patriots, approximately fifteen thousand black loyalists served with the British, who had promised freedom to those who would serve them. (See section The African American Revolution in your textbook. ) 13. What was the Somerset case? c. It was a lawsuit filed on behalf of a runaway African-born slave in a British court The Somerset case ultimately freed an American slave named James Somerset in 1772. Born in Africa, Somerset was later sold into slavery in Virginia, where he lived until his owner brought him to London while traveling on business. Somerset ran away, and was eventually apprehended when a British antislavery activist challenged his owners right to detain him. Ultimately, Somerset would gain his freedom as a result of the British courts ruling in favor of Somerset. (See section The Road to Independence in your textbook. ) 14. How did American patriots respond to African Americans demands for freedom during the Revolutionary Era? d. With indifference Although northern blacks tried hard to frame their appeals for freedom in the Revolutionary language of the era, with its emphasis on natural rights, equality, and freedom from tyranny and oppression, such appeals generally fell on deaf ears. Many leaders in the patriot cause, such as James Otis, chose not to link the struggle for their political freedom from Great Britain with the freedom struggles of the enslaved. (See section The Road to Independence in your textbook. ) 15. Who was Crispus Attucks? b. He was a runaway slave who became the first martyr of the American Revolution. Crispus Attucks was a free black man of African and Nantucket ancestry who had secured his freedom by running away from his master as a young man. He went on to join the ranks of Bostons working class, as a laborer on the citys docks. Attuckss resentment toward the British presence in the city of Boston, a resentment shared by his fellow dockworkers, ultimately led to his involvement in what would be known as the Boston Massacre. (See section Black Patriots in your textbook. ) 16. What was Lord Dunmores Proclamation? c. A document extending freedom to black men willing to fight for the British Issued in November 1775 by Virginias royal governor John Murray, the Earl of Dunmore, Lord Dunmores Proclamation promised freedom to blacks in exchange for their willingness to serve in the British army. (See section Black Loyalists in your textbook. ) 17. What ultimately convinced George Washington to allow black men to fight in the Continental Army? c. The idea that his own slaves could potentially fight for the opposing side The potential scenario in which Virginia slaves were fighting for the British convinced Washington to revisit his earlier prohibition against black troops serving under his command. The Continental Congress declared all blacks eligible for service in the army one week after Dunmore issued his proclamation. (See section Black Loyalists in your textbook. ) 18. What role did blacks play in Britains Revolutionary War southern strategy? a. They served as scouts and soldiers Blacks played pivotal roles in Britains southern strategy, serving as everything from scouts to soldiers. While their contributions would prove valuable, Britains southern strategy ultimately failed to bring forth the results the British had hoped for. Black participation in the British cause stiffened the resolve of southern patriots, an outcome the British had sorely underestimated. (See section American Victory, British Defeat in your textbook. ) 19. Where did black loyalists who sided with the British likely resettle when the Revolutionary War ended? b. The Bahamas Britains Royal Navy evacuated approximately fifteen thousand blacks at the conclusion of the Revolutionary War, and they were later resettled in Britains remaining colonies of Canada, Jamaica, South Africa, Australia, or the Bahamas. Some were transported to England itself. (See section The Fate of Black Loyalists in your textbook. ) 20. Where was the United States free black population concentrated after the Revolutionary War? b. In the Upper South and the North Free black communities in the Upper South and in the North grew substantially in the twenty years after the Revolutionary War. (See section Closer to Freedom in your textbook. )

Trailers Harry Potter and Mission Impossible 2 Essays

Trailers Harry Potter and Mission Impossible 2 Essays Trailers Harry Potter and Mission Impossible 2 Paper Trailers Harry Potter and Mission Impossible 2 Paper The use of a trailer to advertise films has developed in the last ten years into an art almost separate from that of making the film itself. As seen last summer when Star Wars Fever was at its height, the release of certain eagerly awaited trailers has become almost as hyped as the release of the film itself. More and more attention is paid towards the making of trailers and teaser trailers, because of the huge role they play in boosting the profits of the film. They have become longer, they give away more of the plot lines than ever before and in some cases specialist directors have been called in to make them.Both of these trailers are teaser trailers. This means that they are released quite some time before the film, in the case of Harry Potter, nine months before the film is due to be released. They contain less information about plots than normal trailers, merely introducing the viewer to the genre and possibly some of the major selling points, although s ome teasers may be quite minimal. Their basic aim is to get across the information, what film and when its coming out, not to provide detailed information about the film.Harry Potter and The Sorcerers Stone is a film that has been eagerly anticipated for months. The series of books has been hugely popular and the making of the film has been under the public eye ever since the boy to play Harry was chosen. The audience and therefore profit for this film was more or less guaranteed, so giving away plot-lines or establishing genre is less important for this film than it is for Mission: Impossible 2. The trailer therefore concentrates more on showing off other selling points, such as famous actors and special effects.MI 2 although the sequel to a highly successful film cannot rely on instant audiences on sheer hype. It therefore needs to give away much more of the plot and action than the Harry Potter trailer. Mission: Impossible has one major selling point, Tom Cruise. He is an unique selling point in his own right, attracting large crowds into the cinema. This is shown in the way that he is the focus in almost every shot throughout the trailer. He is not introduced until about twenty seconds into the trailer, when the camera quickly zooms into a shot of his face covering the whole screen. He is dangling from a cliff face with one hand, but he doesnt panic like a normal person, he takes one deep breath and gives the camera an Im cool and in control look. With this one shot we are introduced into one of the major themes running through the trailer (and film), Ethan Hunt (Tom Cruise) gets into many dangerous situations but remains cool.Almost all film trailers and films start with a shot of the logo of the film company, in these cases Paramount and Warner Bros. Both of these trailers do this however they take this standard a step further and incorporate the logos into the rest of the trailer. The Paramount logo is of a mountain surrounded by stars, and the word Par amount. This logo is manipulated by taking it into three dimensions with a helicopter shot panning round the outside of the mountain. This instantly introduces us to rocky mountainous landscapes, making the transition into the first shot of the film, a long helicopter shot, speeding across a barren, rocky desert, seem much more natural. In Harry Potter, the logo is shown, as the non-diagenic words, Theres no such thing as magic! are heard, swiftly followed by the hoot of an owl. Suddenly the logo shakes and owls come flying out of the gold lettering, changing the blue background into a sky-scape. In these first ten seconds, the genre of the film is immediately established.Establishing the genre of the film is a very important part of film trailers. Some trailers, like MI 2 prefer to leave this until later, drawing as much of the audience into the film as impartially as possible. If Mission: Impossible 2, Action Movie, Violence, Gadgets, Girls! was splashed across the screen with the first shot of the trailer, it would discourage a large amount of the viewers from going to see the film. By leaving these statements until later in the film, they hope to increase the range of their target audience. Harry Potter however, establishes its genre almost immediately with the opening words, Theres no such thing as magic! Harry Potter is a household name across the country and so concealing the story line and genre for as long as the MI 2 trailer would be nearly impossible. Instead they grab the viewers attention immediately with the booming slam of a door and loudly spoken words. The trailer then continues at this breakneck speed right up until the last shot.The two trailers are shot in very different styles; MI 2 is shot and cut, using the very distinctive style of John Woo. Woo is well known for his martial arts and action films and uses many camera tricks, shown in this trailer. These unconventional styles give the film a cooler status than Harry Potter which more or less uses the same standard style all the way through. Woo is particularly known for his habit of altering the speed of shots, slowing down the frame speed, often during fight scenes. This emphasises the skill and brutality of the fights and allows the viewer to take in more detail, especially facial expressions. This is used principally with Tom Cruise; in the first fight scene we see him execute a spinning kick in slow motion. This allows us to see the anger and concentration on Cruises face and also puts more emphasis on the fluidity of the movement the swinging of Cruises hair following his movement catches the eye.Up until halfway through the MI 2 trailer, there are almost no fast action scenes at all. It is filmed with long, sweeping, panoramic shots, some more than 5 seconds in length. Fades are used instead of straight cuts to add continuity and mise en scene shots are used to show the size and scope of the landscape. And then, louder music cuts in, an explosion rips across the screen as his glasses self-destruct and the action begins. A series of short one or two second cuts begins, showing action from the film. These includes fight scenes, car chases and sex scenes. Many special effects and stunts are shown, with a variety of different camera effects. Frame speed is altered and colour filters are used. Several shots are shown in black and white, this has many effects. It adds contrast and definition to the shot, removing the distraction of colour; it adds dramatic impact to the shot as these black and white shots are in contrast to the rest of the trailer which is shown in colour; it also adds verisimilitude, especially for the younger generation. Black and white has connotations with the truth; CCTV footage is shown in black and white, and television documentaries often contain black and white footage. The flames from the original explosion, licking across the screen link all of these action shots. Adding a sense of violence and danger to the shots , as they are all tinted with red. It also seems to add continuity across otherwise disjointed shots.A similar linking effect is used in the first part of the Harry Potter trailer. After the original flurry of owls covering the screen, a steam train is seen travelling through a valley. It then moves into another shot but as it fades into the next the same train is seen from a different angle. This continues until, finally, we see the train stopped at a station. Fade cuts are almost always used between shots, which gives the trailer an overall feeling of wholeness. It also gives the one time a straight cut is used great dramatic effect, as it appears very sudden. There are also far fewer close-up shots in this trailer; this gives the trailer a feeling of space. This could also be to do with the fact that the actor who plays Harry Potter is not a major star, and the film is more to do with the story or the relationships between the different characters than one major star, like Tom Cr uise in MI 2The target audience of Mission: Impossible 2 is very much teenagers and young adults. The film appeals to their sense of what is cool and what isnt. Tom Cruise wears cool clothes, drives fast cars, and attracts beautiful women. He has a very relaxed attitude towards danger shown when at the end of the trailer he says with a smile, Youve gotta be kidding. This gives him a status among the viewers and makes it a film worth seeing. He is set up as a role model and everything that a young man should want to be like. Harry Potter on the other hand is mainly targeted at pre-adolescent children. This audience is attracted by the fantastic world of wizardry and by the magical special effects shown. Much time is spent showing children flying on broomsticks for example and the soundtrack has many sound effects such as rolling thunder and hooting owls, associated with magic.Both films are linked with a non-diagenic voiceover that speaks a well-known phrase. In MI 2 the almost legen dary words, This is your mission should you choose to accept it are spoken by the well-known voice of Sir Anthony Hopkins. This voice continues until the action sequence begins and then again at the end the words, This message will self-destruct in five seconds are heard. These phrases are intertextualities with the television series, in which every episode began with a similar dialogue. Interestingly in both trailers the voiceovers are letters to the main character of the film. In Harry Potter, the equally famous voice of Sir Richard Attenborough, reads the letter telling Harry, You have been accepted to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. This letter will be extremely familiar to children who have read the book, Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone and they will link this trailer, in with the book by intertextuality. People new to Harry Potter will also find their interest evoked by this simple introduction to the story.The soundtrack to the Harry Potter trailer is an e specially composed, orchestral piece that links directly in with the action going on during the trailer. For example, we see Harry, Hermione and Ron screaming, but instead of hearing a scream we hear the music reach a climax at exactly the same moment. The music is quiet and tuneful during calm scenes and when there is a frightening or dangerous scene it is loud and threatening.In MI 2 the music is another intertextuality with the television series, from which the main theme for the music was taken. The soundtrack was commissioned to a cool rock band (again adding status to the film among younger people) but still revolved around the same basic theme. The music doesnt fit around the action going on in the trailer, apart from when the loud guitar theme begins simultaneously with the action sequence. Also it pauses to let Cruise say the only diagenic line at the end. Less care was probably taken with the soundtrack in this trailer, as it would probably be reused during the actual film . This is impossible for a tailor-made soundtrack such as is used in Harry Potter.These teaser trailers are much shorter than a normal trailer would be, and instead of immersing us in plot lines, intend to expose us to high-paced special effects and action, instantly grabbing our attention. However short and uninformative they may be, they are still glimpses of what is to come and so command huge amounts of excitement among dedicated fans.

Vibrators in American society Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Vibrators in American society - Research Paper Example Terming vibrators as massage devices is commonly regarded as a euphemism for having vibrators for sex toys as it is the most usual word applied by those that are found with the said devices. The above is rampant in American societies that do not condone the use of vibrators for sexual pleasure let alone being in possession of the same for massage purposes, while in highly religious American societies; this is shunned upon and termed as evil. Looking at families, the use of this device is common but usually occurs without other people as the use of vibrators is termed as confidential and not public knowledge, which is the same way in which issues of sex are treated. When children come across these devices they are told that these are massagers and are even shown how they work, but not in a sexual manner. In addition to the use of vibrators as massagers, the American society is quite innovative in that it has found novel ways for their use in massage. This can be seen in the case of vo ice coaches using vibrators to massage the throats of singers in an attempt to release tension in the vocal cords for better voice projection (NewsBite, 2013). As a result, these sex partners or sex toys have more uses than just sexual pleasure despite their procurement from sex shops. Another look at vibrators indicates that these devices may be more popular than marriage in the American society based on different studies conducted on Americans. One such study was conducted by Indiana University, where the prevalence of vibrators is higher than the popularity of men. This is especially so amongst women who were found to prefer the use of this device rather than engaging in actual sexual activities with real life men. The above is especially fascinating considering that the studies show a majority of women in the American society as having used a vibrator at one time or the other in their entire life time (Selim, 2009). Further analysis in marriages indicated that women who were mar ried still used the same devices and a comparison of married women at 51% of the entire American female population against 53% of all women that have used the device either in marriage or not shows the popularity of the vibrator. To eliminate gender bias by looking only at the female population, a look at the male population indicates that a large number of men have also used vibrators. The number ranges anything between 40% to 50% of men aged between 18 and 60 and these are just the ones that have used a vibrator at one time of their lives whether individually or with partners (Selim, 2009). The above is also the case for women who used vibrators as sexual partners, where some used them with partners and other just alone. Vibrators over the years have been deemed as an important part of sexual experience in light of their usage by the American society, especially based on early mechanization and electrification of the device. Analysis on the use of vibrators from the early 1900s is indicative of this fact, where there original use was to treat hysteria and other elusive disorders by physicians in the privacy and convenience of their own clinics (Maines, 2001). It is from this that the mechanical use of vibrators

Establish relationships with customers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Establish relationships with customers - Essay Example Accordingly, a "satisfied customer" is not enough to create customer loyalty because customer loyalty is established not only through meeting basic needs, but in delighting the customers so that they will continue to patronize and repeatedly purchase the products or services of organizations. Further, all organizations aim to satisfy their customers but only a few establish customer loyalty due to the added value provided. Products that generate a lot of customer loyalty are Coke, Johnson and Johnson, Procter and Gamble, Nestle, Colgate-Palmolive, to name a few. These products exemplify giving their customers more value for the products patronized in terms of extending care, addressing inquiries immediately, ensuring high quality of products for the price paid, and making them instrumental part of the customers’ daily lives. Microsoft could be deemed as an organization that earned customer loyalty due to the exemplary quality of products offered to the consumers. A lot of its products have been replicated by other computer organizations but their mission and genuine commitment to help people and business organizations through sharing the products that they offer are commendable and consistent with the ideals for social responsibility; as well as conformity to ethical and moral

How a criminal develops Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How a criminal develops - Essay Example For example, these children will latter be found practicing what they had watched earlier. The theory has also been proved as true by a considerable number of serial killers who have admitted to have watched horror films and scary pictures (Erika, 2006). Types of feelings that lead to criminal development Alpha motives are feelings that result impulsively from day to day ordinary behaviors therefore proving that social learning theory is exhibited (Miller and Dollard 1941). Nonetheless, other motives might be resultants which are environmental experiences. For instance, in learning theory, an individual who has been insulted by his colleague might feel that the friend has established control over him and therefore this feeling instigates him to seek counter attack. A considerable number of criminals are influenced by these feelings of control in stances where they have perceived that other people have advantage in their lives (Bandura, 1977). As pointed out by Hensley and Singer (200 4) the social learning theory a person is â€Å"instigated† toward a behavior that is a precursor situation of which the predicted rejoinder is the consequences. The social learning theory is supported by psychological findings on frustration theory, regarding criminal activity and the things that lead to developing of criminal behavior. For example, in instances where one expects positive results from a behavior, or perceives there is a high possibility of a positive outcome, then they are most likely to be involved in that behavior. The behavior is encouraged, with positive result, making that person to engage again in the behavior. There are numerous evidences supporting social learning theory through frustration theory including retaliations for nonreward (Erika, 2006). For instance, serial killers come from a stressful environment. They in one way or another have been subjected to some degree of frustration at a tender age or latter by their parents, siblings, and or soc iety. This theory is extensively supported by psychological studies of the criminal mind of a serial killer. It has been established that a mind of a criminal is managed by various distressful sensations which the criminal tries to stop by committing a particular act (Bandura, 1977). Fundamentally, in social learning theory, a criminals’ mind is motivated by various motives which in essence are the feelings of distress (Hensley and Singer, 2004). This urge is necessitated by a stimulus which leads to voluntary behavior to please and meet the psychological needs. For instance, it is evident that when an individual decides to stealing food, that person is a victim of distress and is acting from the feelings of distress (Erika, 2006). Therefore, feelings of hunger might drive a person to steal in order to satisfy his immediate needs of starvation. Nonetheless, in the event that the same individual has enough food and decides to continue stealing more food, then it is observed th at this persons’ motive is motivated by the reaction of feeling anguish. According to Hensley and Singer (2004) other significant reports showed that serial killers might have acted out of instigation and also out of frustrations from failed intimate and other social relations therefore indicating social learning theory. For instance, this is exhibited by David Berowitz alias Son of Sam, a serial killer of New York, who